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Measuring Site Index
Site index (SI) is a measurement commonly used by foresters to describe the productivity of a site. Typically this measurement is used to describe sites growing well-stocked even-aged forests. Site index is the average height of the dominant1 and codominant2 trees on the site, at a given age (base age). Typically, the base age for hardwoods and white pine in Virginia is 50 years, while the base age for loblolly pine is 25 years. For example, a SI of 75, base age 50, means that the average height of the dominant and codominant trees on a site will be 75 feet when they are 50 years old (SI50=75). The higher the SI, the higher the site productivity (trees will grow faster than on a site with a lower SI).
Apr 30, 2020 2812-1028 (CNRE-96NP)
Measuring Site Index
Site index (SI) is a measurement commonly used by foresters to describe the productivity of a site. Typically this measurement is used to describe sites growing well-stocked even-aged forests. Site index is the average height of the dominant1 and codominant2 trees on the site, at a given age (base age). Typically, the base age for hardwoods and white pine in Virginia is 50 years, while the base age for loblolly pine is 25 years. For example, a SI of 75, base age 50, means that the average height of the dominant and codominant trees on a site will be 75 feet when they are 50 years old (SI50=75). The higher the SI, the higher the site productivity (trees will grow faster than on a site with a lower SI).
Apr 30, 2020 2812-1028 (CNRE-96NP)
Pales Weevil
Pales weevil feeds on all pines within its range. It will also feed, although to a lesser extent, on Douglas-fir, fir, hemlock, juniper, larch, northern white-cedar, and spruce.
Jun 30, 2020 2902-1102 (ENTO-386NP)
Pales Weevil
Pales weevil feeds on all pines within its range. It will also feed, although to a lesser extent, on Douglas-fir, fir, hemlock, juniper, larch, northern white-cedar, and spruce.
Jun 30, 2020 2902-1102 (ENTO-386NP)
Emerald Ash Borer
The emerald ash borer (EAB) is a serious pest of all species of ash in North America. Only Asian species of ash have shown resistance to this pest. It attacks all ash found in Virginia and is widespread in the state.
Jan 9, 2024 2904-1290 (ENTO-200NP)
Pine Bark Adelgid
The pine bark adelgid was introduced from Europe and is now widely distributed in North America, occurring principally throughout the native range of eastern white pine. This insect is also found on Scots and Austrian pine.
Mar 30, 2023 2907-1402 (ENTO-544NP)
Twig Girdler/Twig Pruner
These beetles cause very conspicuous damage in late summer. The leaves on large numbers of twigs and branches will be observed to turn brown prematurely. These twigs and branches sometimes fall from trees in great numbers and accumulate. On close examination, the twigs have one of two kinds of damage. Twigs damaged by the twig girdler are cut as neatly as by a knife. The cut end has been gnawed almost straight across with a faint rounding and is slightly roughened by the chewing. The twig girdler is more commonly found on pecan and hickory. The twig pruner causes a slightly different type of cut. The twig will be observed to have a hollowed out space at the cut end filled with sawdust like frass. The twig when split open will have a long tunnel through most of its length. The twig pruner is more commonly found on oak.
May 1, 2020 2911-1423 (ENTO-374NP)
Virginia Pine Sawfly
The Virginia pine sawfly has been recorded from New Jersey and Maryland to North Carolina and westward to Illinois. Its main hosts are Virginia and shortleaf pines, but it also feeds on pitch and loblolly pine.
May 1, 2020 2911-1424 (ENTO-375NP)
Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Jul 13, 2022 3006-1451 (ENTO-228NP)
Balsam Woolly Adelgid
Native to central Europe, the balsam woolly adelgid is now distributed throughout eastern and western North America. It attacks all true firs, Abies spp., including balsam and Fraser fir.
Mar 1, 2021 3006-1452 (ENTO-434NP)
Redheaded Sawfly
The redheaded pine sawfly occurs from S.E. Canada throughout the eastern U.S. Feeding is primarily restricted to the two and three-needled pines, such as Jack, red, shortleaf, loblolly, slash, longleaf, and pitch pines. White pine and Norway spruce may also be defoliated.
Mar 5, 2021 3006-1453 (ENTO-429NP)
Pine Tortoise Scale
Foliage drops, needles usually shorter and may kill tree over period of years - most damaging on seedlings and young saplings. Often black sooty mold is associated with infestations.
Mar 24, 2016 3101-1529 (ENTO-207NP)
Pine Tortoise Scale Nov 22, 2021 3104-1529 (ENTO-466NP)
Virginia Logger Safety Checklist Booklet Feb 17, 2023 3108-1592 (CNRE-163NP)
Managing Wildlife Damage: Snakes Nov 7, 2019 420-021 (CNRE-56P)
Design and Operation of a Solar-Heated Dry Kiln
Lumber is usually dried to a specific moisture content prior to further manufacturing or use. The amount of water in wood is usually expressed as moisture content and can be directly measured or calculated. The moisture content of wood is defined as the ratio of the weight of water in wood to the dry weight of the wood material. While lumber can be air-dried, the humidity in most localities prevents the lumber from reaching the moisture content required for the stability needed for interior use. A dry kiln is required to dry lumber to the necessary final moisture content and does so fairly rapidly. This publication discusses the design and operation of a solar-heated lumber dry kiln that is designed to be inexpensive to construct and simple to operate.
Dec 8, 2020 420-030 (ANR-121P)
Guide to Threatened and Endangered Species on Private Lands In Virginia Sep 6, 2018 420-039 (CNRE-130P)
An Introduction to Growing Christmas Trees in Virginia
Each year many landowners in Virginia consider Christmas tree farming as an alternative enterprise for their unused open land. The number of growers in the Commonwealth is increasing steadily, and currently Virginia ranks eighth in the nation in Christmas tree production, with about 1.8 million trees harvested in 1990.
Mar 11, 2021 420-080 (CNRE-131P)
Species for Christmas Tree Planting in Virginia
Christmas tree production in Virginia has steadily increased over the last several years. Favorable climate, soils, and proximity to markets place Virginia growers in a highly desirable marketing situation.
Nov 4, 2020 420-082
Forest Landowner’s Guide To The Measurement Of Timber And Logs
As a forest landowner interested in selling timber, you are naturally interested in the price you will receive for your product and how that price is determined. The measurement of standing timber and logs may seem strange and complicated to you, and it is possible that you may be quoted dramatically different prices based upon differing estimates of the amount of timber you have and the units of measurement used. Methods of measuring timber and the units of measurement often differ between buyers, and, as a seller, you should have an understanding of these methods, the units of measurement, and an idea as to a reasonable price for your timber.
Jul 13, 2020 420-085 (CNRE-103P)
Skidder Safety and Efficiency: A Discussion Leader's Guide Mar 24, 2020 420-122 (BSE-288P)
Timber Theft in Virginia
Forestland can provide countless hours of recreational benefits as well as an important source of income. Many landowners take careful steps to ensure that their property is managed to maximize the benefits they receive. However, all of this work can be easily eradicated by one of Virginia’s most dreaded forest pests: timber thieves.
Sep 14, 2020 420-136 (CNRE-117NP)
Sustainable Forestry: A Guide for Virginia Forest Landowners Feb 2, 2023 420-139 (CNRE-156P)
Lean Inventory Management in the Wood Products Industry: Examples and Applications May 3, 2021 420-148 (CNRE-132NP)
Exotic Invasive Plants
Invasive exotic species are plants that are not native to a given area and have the ability to out-compete indigenous plant species. Invasive exotics are often brought into their non-native surroundings by humans with good intentions.
Apr 29, 2020 420-320 (CNRE-105NP)
Invasive Exotic Plant Species: Autumn Olive (Elaeagnus umbellata)
Autumn olive was introduced to the U.S. from Japan and China in 1830. It was originally planted for wildlife habitat, shelterbelts, and mine reclamation, but has escaped cultivation. It is dispersed most frequently by birds and other wildlife, which eat the berries.
Apr 28, 2020 420-321 (CNRE-97P)
Invasive Exotic Plant Species: Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)
Several species of Asian honeysuckle have been introduced in the United States for their ornamental and wildlife values. Honeysuckle is perhaps the most widespread exotic invasive in the U.S., now found in at least 38 states. The Asian honeysuckle produces abundant seeds which are dispersed by birds and other wildlife. It also spreads by sprouting from its roots. Because it tolerates shade from other plants, it grows in forest understories.
Apr 1, 2020 420-323 (CNRE-95P)
Characteristics of Common Western Virginia Trees
Forest management is a complex process. Silviculture—a system in which healthy communities of trees and other vegetation are established and maintained for the benefit of people—uses forest ecology to guide complex management prescriptions that mimic forest disturbances and processes. Silvics—the natural characteristics of trees—play an important role in prescribing effective silviculture.
May 20, 2020 420-351 (ANR-118NP)
Coloring Christmas Trees Before Harvest
As the Christmas tree industry develops in Virginia, the production of larger quantities of trees places growers in a more competitive environment. Under conditions of competition, it becomes necessary for growers to produce the highest quality trees possible in order to enjoy marketing success. There are many characteristics of Christmas trees which are widely considered to be quality factors, but the most important are shape, needle retention, straightness, and color.
Sep 14, 2020 420-638(CNRE-118P)
Poison Ivy: Leaves of three? Let it be! Jun 26, 2023 426-109 (SPES-510P)
Periodical Cicada
In Virginia both the 17-and 13-year cicadas damage many ornamental and hardwood trees. Oaks are commonly attacked but the most seriously damaged are newly planted fruit and ornamental trees such as apple, dogwood, peach, hickory, cherry, and pear. Pines and other conifers are not commonly attacked.
Jul 7, 2021 444-276 (ENTO-455NP)
2024 Pest Management Guide - Horticultural and Forest Crops Jan 19, 2024 456-017 (ENTO-568P)
Powell River Project - Growing Christmas Trees on Reclaimed Surface-mined Land
Christmas tree production can be an excellent use for reclaimed mined lands in Virginia. Most species do quite well on mine soils because they are more tolerant of infertile and droughty conditions than agricultural or horticultural crops, yet they do respond to active management. Christmas trees can be harvested within seven to 10 years, while timber crops take much longer to mature. For the person with time to invest, Christmas trees can be an ideal way to put small parcels of reclaimed mined lands to profitable use. Individual growers can conveniently maintain up to 5 acres of trees in their spare time.
Jul 1, 2023 460-116
Powell River Project - How to Restore Forests on Surface-mined Land
This publication describes procedures for re-establishing native forest trees on surface coal mine reclamation sites in southwestern Virginia and elsewhere in Appalachia.
Jul 28, 2023 460-123 (CSES-211P)
Powell River Project - Establishing Groundcover for Forested Postmining Land Uses Mar 15, 2018 460-124 (CSES-212P)
Powell River Project - Recovery of Native Plant Communities After Mining
This publication describes plant communities occurring on mine sites that were reclaimed during different eras, and using different reclamation methods.
Jul 28, 2023 460-140 (CSES-220P)
Forests of Virginia: Importance, Composition, Ecology, Threats, and Management Mar 4, 2016 465-315 (ANR-163P)
To Clear or Not To Clear -- That Is the Question
The economic and ecological considerations of clear cutting wooded acreage.
Mar 2, 2022 465-340 (CNRE-139P)
Options for Clearing Land: Pasture Establishment Mar 2, 2022 465-341 (CNRE-136P)
Taste of Farming: Forestry in Virginia Apr 1, 2022 ALCE-296-10
Consider Logging Residue Needs for BMP Implementation When Harvesting Biomass for Energy
Utilization of woody biomass for energy has increased substantially in Virginia. While there are a number of definitions for biomass, woody biomass from forest harvesting operations typically refers to logging residues such as limbs, tops, and other unmerchantable material that would otherwise be left behind on-site after the logging operation is complete. Logging residues are typically chipped and then transported to facilities where they are used for fuel. Biomass harvesting in Virginia most commonly occurs on integrated harvesting operations where roundwood and biomass are harvested and utilized at the same time in a single operation.
Dec 13, 2019 ANR-108NP
Effectiveness of Skid Trail Closure Techniques. Forest Operations Research Highlights Dec 13, 2019 ANR-109NP
Effectiveness of Temporary Stream Crossing Closure Techniques Forest Operations Research Highlights
Protection of water quality is a critical component of forest harvesting operations. Virginia’s silvicultural water quality law (§10.1-1181.1 through 10.1-1181.7) prohibits excessive sedimentation of streams as a result of silvicultural operations. Virginia’s logging businesses invest substantial resources implementing BMPs to protect water quality. The Virginia Department of Forestry (VDOF) is responsible for enforcing this law and inspects all logging operations to ensure protection of water quality.
Dec 13, 2019 ANR-110NP
All-Age Management, Demonstration Woodlot
Many forest owners value their forest for wildlife habitat, recreation, and aesthetics. Given accurate information, many want to manage their woodlot using sound silviculture but clear-cutting as a regeneration method may not be visually acceptable. While a profitable timber harvest is of interest, a visually pleasing residual stand may be more important. To meet this objective, Stand D1 of the SVAREC forests was selected to demonstrate All-Age Management using group selection silviculture and individual thinning of select trees to create four age classes.
Sep 12, 2019 ANR-132NP (CNRE-70NP)
Thinning Hardwoods, Demonstration Woodlot
Most forest owners value their forest for wildlife habitat, recreation and aesthetics. Given accurate information, they may manage their woodlot to achieve these and other goals using sound silviculture. Thinning over-stocked woodlots is one silvicultural management tool. Thinning can modify spacing and diversity of species to meet desired goals which may include timber, wildlife, aesthetics and more. Thinning also improves woodlot vigor by removing over-mature, suppressed, defective or weakened trees. To meet theses objective, Stand D2 was selected for a thinning research & demonstration site.
Sep 12, 2019 ANR-133NP (CNRE-69NP)
Welcome to the Woods! A Guide for New Virginia Woodland Owners
We all depend on and benefit from the woods every day, whether we know it or not. The trees, shrubs, plants, animals, and soil that make up your woods provide you, your neighbors, and your region with a host of environmental, social, and economic benefits.
Dec 19, 2023 ANR-136P (CNRE-173P)
Statistical Process Control: Applications and Examples for Forest Products Industries
Creating value requires managers to master quantitative and qualitative techniques to document and analyze information used in the decision making process. Statistical Process Control (SPC) is a tool that allows administrators both in service and manufacturing industries to monitor process capability to ensure customer requirements are met efficiently and effectively.
Sep 29, 2020 ANR-140NP
So You Want To Sell Timber
Research into the attitudes and actions of private forest landowners shows that although very few own their forestland for the purpose of producing timber, most will sell timber at least once in their lifetimes. Private forest landowners sell timber for a variety of reasons that range from purely financial to solely for management purposes. Often landowners do not consider selling timber until they have an immediate need for cash. Other times the landowner has planned an immediate commercial thinning with a full timber harvest scheduled in 10 years. Whatever the reason(s) for a timber sale, careful consideration of objectives is paramount.
Dec 5, 2023 ANR-154P
Timber Selling Tips: Forestry Fact Sheet for Landowners
Timber harvesting is a valuable tool to help forest landowners realize certain financial and land management goals. Following are some suggestions to consider before selling timber.
Dec 5, 2023 ANR-155P
Business Management Practices for Small to Medium Sized Forest Products Firms Nov 2, 2020 ANR-160P
Trees and Water Oct 19, 2018 ANR-18NP (CNRE-34NP)
The Woods In Your Backyard: Learning to Create and Enhance Natural Areas Around Your Home May 17, 2016 ANR-199NP
New market idea: Selling woody materials from landscaping projects to craft industry Jun 30, 2021 ANR-215NP
What is a Virginia Master Naturalist? Jun 8, 2022 ANR-242NP
Rare Forested Natural Communities in Virginia May 17, 2022 ANR-260NP
Regional Forest Harvest Characteristics across Virginia May 17, 2022 ANR-264NP
Slash Application Cost Estimates for Skid Trail Closure in the Virginia Piedmont
Best management practices (BMPs) were developed after the passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 to mitigate pollutants and sediment from entering streams. Forest operations are a potential source of sediment to streams surrounding harvest areas. Specifically, roads, skid trails, landings, and stream crossings can cause accelerated erosion due to the soil disturbance caused by logging equipment and exposure of bare soil (Appelboom et al. 2002). Soil erosion can result in decreased productivity, degraded water quality, and increased costs associated with state and federal environmental regulations.
Dec 14, 2022 ANR-273NP
One-Year Health, Mortality, and Growth in Southeast Virginia of Shortleaf Pine From Three Sources
Restoration of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) in Virginia has become a priority of various state and federal agencies. For shortleaf pine restoration to be successful in Virginia, private lands must be considered because 89 percent of forestland in Virginia is privately owned, and most private landowners are likely to use commercially available seedling sources. Shortleaf seedlings from commercially available sources in Virginia, Arkansas, and Missouri were planted in two sites in Southeast Virginia to test growth and yield. After one year, height and ground-line diameter were measured and observations were made on health and mortality of the plants. The Virginia seed source was significantly taller than the Arkansas source. At the first site, mortality and disease were low, but at the second site, mortality and poor health were very high, possibly due to soils combined with weather conditions. No significant seed source effects on disease and mortality were found at either site.
Oct 25, 2018 ANR-28P (CNRE-28P)
The Role of Logging Business Owners in Forest Certification Nov 9, 2018 ANR-51NP (CNRE-35NP)
Wood Identification for Species Native to Virginia May 10, 2019 ANR-64P (ANR-324P)
Lean at Hardwood Lumber Inc. Jun 27, 2022 ANR-226
The Virginia Tech – U.S. Forest Service September 2017 Housing Commentary: Section I Dec 13, 2017 CNRE-1NP
Legacy Planning - A Guide For Virginia Landowners Jan 12, 2021 CNRE-121P (CNRE-175P)
Impact of Planting Treatments on Eastern White Pine Seedling Survival and Growth at the Matthews State Forest in Grayson County, Virginia Dec 20, 2021 CNRE-137NP
Woodland Health Practices - A Field Guide May 26, 2023 CNRE-164NP
Impact of Thinning Immature White Pine Stands on Growth and Timber Value in Grayson County Virginia Jun 2, 2023 CNRE-170NP
Defining Silvopastures: Integrating Tree Production With Forage-Livestock Systems for Economic, Environmental, and Aesthetic Outcomes May 6, 2021 CSES-146P
Creating Silvopastures: Some Considerations When Thinning Existing Timber Stands
Silvopastures intentionally integrate trees with forage and livestock production in a rotational grazing system. These systems have the potential to improve animal comfort, increase farm resource use efficiency, boost income, and mitigate environmental costs.
Apr 20, 2021 CSES-155P
Creating Silvopastures: Some Considerations When Planting Trees in Pastures May 1, 2023 CSES-185P
Galls and Rust made by Mites Nov 29, 2022 ENTO-532NP
Yellow Poplar Weevil
Rice-shaped holes about 1/16 inches result from adult feeding. Larval feeding forms mines, usually two per leaf. If they are both on the same side of midrib, one is extensive, and the other dwarfed. If the insect lays eggs on opposite sides of the midrib, both mines develop normally.
May 6, 2020 ENTO-172NP (ENTO-380NP)
Fall Cankerworm
Cankerworms are also known as inchworms, loop worms, and spanworms - this is credited to their distinctive way of moving. In order to travel, a cankerworm must grab leaves or branches with its front legs and then pull the rest of its body forward. This causes the abdomen area to contract and gives the worm the appearance of arching its back.
Feb 5, 2021 ENTO-223NP (ENTO-404NP)
Jumping Worms (Amynthas spp.) May 24, 2023 ENTO-427NP (ENTO-559NP)
Buprestid Beetles and Flathead Borers Mar 4, 2021 ENTO-441NP
Red Imported Fire Ant Logger Self-Inspection Checklist Feb 25, 2022 ENTO-492NP
Emerald Ash Borer: Options for Landowners
Emerald ash borer (EAB) is found in all regions of Virginia. Some areas have established populations with a high level of ash tree mortality and other areas are seeing it for the first time. With a wider spread of infestation many homeowners are seeking methods to protect their ash trees.
Dec 17, 2019 ENTO-76NP (ENTO-343NP)
Red Imported Fire Ant Farmer Self-Inspection Checklist Mar 8, 2022 ENTO-493NP
Elongate Hemlock Scale on Christmas Trees Mar 17, 2023 ENTO-552NP
Emerald Ash Borer
The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire) is a wood-boring beetle native to eastern Asia and is now considered the most destructive forest pest ever seen in North America. Since its discovery in Michigan in 2002, it has killed tens of millions of native ash (Fraxinus spp.) trees in the United States and Canada. This destruction has already cost municipalities, property owners, and businesses tens of millions of dollars in damages.
May 10, 2020 HORT-69NP
How to Evaluate a Tree May 19, 2021 SPES-313P
Planted Hardwood Silvopasture: Producer Perspective From Rockingham Co. VA Jul 26, 2022 SPES-410NP
Planted Hardwood Silvopasture: Producer Perspective From Wythe Co. VA Jul 26, 2022 SPES-411NP
Silvopasture Best Management Practices Jul 26, 2022 SPES-412NP
Silvopasture Challenges: Producer Perspectives Jul 26, 2022 SPES-413NP
Thinned Hardwood Silvopasture: Producer Perspective From Nelson Co. VA Jul 27, 2022 SPES-414NP
Thinned Hardwood Silvopasture Producer Perspective From Rockbridge Co. VA Jul 28, 2022 SPES-415NP
Thinned Pine Silvopasture Producer: (#1) Perspective From Charlotte Co. VA Jul 28, 2022 SPES-416NP
Thinned Pine Silvopasture Producer: (#2) Perspective From Charlotte Co. VA Jul 28, 2022 SPES-417NP
Thinned Pine Silvopasture: Producer Perspective from Orange Co. VA Jul 28, 2022 SPES-418NP
Thinned Pine Silvopasture: Producer Perspective From Pender Co. NC Jul 28, 2022 SPES-419NP
VCE Ag Today: Timber Market Update Jul 5, 2021 VCE-1027-50NP
Pesticide Applicator Manuals Dec 17, 2021 VTTP-2